Common Signal Words for Argument Parts
As we discussed earlier, the conclusion of an argument is often preceded by certain signal
words. You should be on the lookout for these conclusion signals:
Therefore So
As a result Consequently
Suggests Thus
Indicates Hence
Accordingly It follows that
Conclusions can also be signaled by their strong tone, often marked by “opinion” words
such as should (“This law should be enacted…”).
Likewise, certain other words signal premises. Here are the most common premise signals:
Since Because
Due to Given that
As a result of As
An Alternate Way To Find the Conclusion
This section discusses what to do when the primary patterns for finding the conclusion do
not apply.
As we discussed earlier, the primary patterns will appear the vast majority of the time. On a
few minor and/or more difficult questions, however, we may need to work a little bit harder
to find the conclusion.
You should not use this method unless the primary patterns do not apply, as this alternate
method is more difficult and could lead you to the wrong conclusion.
First: Identify All Claims
In order to separate the conclusion from the premises, first identify all claims made in the
argument. You should distinguish claims from facts, which can be proven true. Claims
often contain one or more of the following three types of language:
A. Predict the Future. Look out for verbs or verb constructions that are in the future tense or
that otherwise refer to the future. For example:
will, should, can be expected to, could result in, are likely to, etc.
Most statements that take place in the future are claims. For example:
• If she studies several times a week, Melissa can expect to improve her score.
• Homeowners should participate in the program in order to decrease their
overall property tax burden over time.
B. Subjective Opinion. Anything that expresses an opinion is likely to be a claim. Similarly,
anything that cannot be proven, only argued, is likely to be a claim. For example:
• The proposal to hire additional dogcatchers in Newtown is a mistake.
• Ballroom dancing is more of an art form than a sport.
• The mayor’s plan is likely to fail.
C. Cause and Effect. Cause and effect statements are signaled by a number of key words:
• If X happens, then Y happens.
• As a result of or because of or since X, Y will happen.
• X happens, so Y will result.
If you find only one claim, you are done—that is the conclusion! If you find more than
one, move on to the second step.
Second: Use the “Therefore” Test
The conclusion of the argument is the FINAL claim. In other words, every other claim
leads to the conclusion, which is logically last in the sequence of events.
If you have two claims, X and Y, ask yourself: Does X lead to Y? Or does Y lead to X? To
apply the “Therefore” test, try saying the claims two ways:
(1) “X, therefore Y.” If this works, Y is the conclusion.
(2) “Y, therefore X.” If this works, X is the conclusion.
For example:
Manager: the new manufacturing process should save us time in the end,
even though the first step of the five-step process will take twice as long as
it does under the old process. Far fewer of the components will be found
defective and the sole purpose of steps two and three under the old process
is to weed out defective components. As a result, we should be able to eliminate
two of the five steps in the existing manufacturing process.
Which of the following would be most useful in evaluating the claim made in
the argument?
The question does not tell us what we should focus on as the conclusion. We have two
major claims in this argument:
X: The new process should save us time.
Y: We should be able to eliminate two of the five steps in the process.
So we have two options: X, therefore Y. Or Y, therefore X.
X, therefore Y: The new process should save us time; therefore, we should be able to eliminate
two of the five steps in the process.
Y, therefore X: We should be able to eliminate two of the five steps in the process; therefore, the
new process should save us time.
Which way is right? In this case, Y leads us to X: first we need to eliminate two of the five
steps, and then, as a result of that elimination, the new process saves time.
X is the final claim in the logical chain of events, so X is the conclusion. The deduction that
takes place last logically (or chronologically) in the sequence of events is the conclusion. Note
that the conclusion will not necessarily appear in the last sentence of the argument.
Also, notice that you could have been distracted by a signal expression in front of claim Y:
As a result. These words tell you that the claim Y is a result of something else (in this case,
other premises). But you should not assume that claim Y is the conclusion; in fact, it leads
to another, even bigger claim (which is the conclusion).
To test the logical relationship of two claims, you can use other connectors besides therefore.
Other words or expressions that work the same way include so, thus, and as a result. Any of
these expressions can signal the conclusion.
Remember that you should only use the “Therefore” test if the question does not tell you
what the conclusion is or does not give you keywords from the argument that point to the
conclusion. If the question does provide such information, that information trumps the
“therefore” test.
As we discussed earlier, the conclusion of an argument is often preceded by certain signal
words. You should be on the lookout for these conclusion signals:
Therefore So
As a result Consequently
Suggests Thus
Indicates Hence
Accordingly It follows that
Conclusions can also be signaled by their strong tone, often marked by “opinion” words
such as should (“This law should be enacted…”).
Likewise, certain other words signal premises. Here are the most common premise signals:
Since Because
Due to Given that
As a result of As
An Alternate Way To Find the Conclusion
This section discusses what to do when the primary patterns for finding the conclusion do
not apply.
As we discussed earlier, the primary patterns will appear the vast majority of the time. On a
few minor and/or more difficult questions, however, we may need to work a little bit harder
to find the conclusion.
You should not use this method unless the primary patterns do not apply, as this alternate
method is more difficult and could lead you to the wrong conclusion.
First: Identify All Claims
In order to separate the conclusion from the premises, first identify all claims made in the
argument. You should distinguish claims from facts, which can be proven true. Claims
often contain one or more of the following three types of language:
A. Predict the Future. Look out for verbs or verb constructions that are in the future tense or
that otherwise refer to the future. For example:
will, should, can be expected to, could result in, are likely to, etc.
Most statements that take place in the future are claims. For example:
• If she studies several times a week, Melissa can expect to improve her score.
• Homeowners should participate in the program in order to decrease their
overall property tax burden over time.
B. Subjective Opinion. Anything that expresses an opinion is likely to be a claim. Similarly,
anything that cannot be proven, only argued, is likely to be a claim. For example:
• The proposal to hire additional dogcatchers in Newtown is a mistake.
• Ballroom dancing is more of an art form than a sport.
• The mayor’s plan is likely to fail.
C. Cause and Effect. Cause and effect statements are signaled by a number of key words:
• If X happens, then Y happens.
• As a result of or because of or since X, Y will happen.
• X happens, so Y will result.
If you find only one claim, you are done—that is the conclusion! If you find more than
one, move on to the second step.
Second: Use the “Therefore” Test
The conclusion of the argument is the FINAL claim. In other words, every other claim
leads to the conclusion, which is logically last in the sequence of events.
If you have two claims, X and Y, ask yourself: Does X lead to Y? Or does Y lead to X? To
apply the “Therefore” test, try saying the claims two ways:
(1) “X, therefore Y.” If this works, Y is the conclusion.
(2) “Y, therefore X.” If this works, X is the conclusion.
For example:
Manager: the new manufacturing process should save us time in the end,
even though the first step of the five-step process will take twice as long as
it does under the old process. Far fewer of the components will be found
defective and the sole purpose of steps two and three under the old process
is to weed out defective components. As a result, we should be able to eliminate
two of the five steps in the existing manufacturing process.
Which of the following would be most useful in evaluating the claim made in
the argument?
The question does not tell us what we should focus on as the conclusion. We have two
major claims in this argument:
X: The new process should save us time.
Y: We should be able to eliminate two of the five steps in the process.
So we have two options: X, therefore Y. Or Y, therefore X.
X, therefore Y: The new process should save us time; therefore, we should be able to eliminate
two of the five steps in the process.
Y, therefore X: We should be able to eliminate two of the five steps in the process; therefore, the
new process should save us time.
Which way is right? In this case, Y leads us to X: first we need to eliminate two of the five
steps, and then, as a result of that elimination, the new process saves time.
X is the final claim in the logical chain of events, so X is the conclusion. The deduction that
takes place last logically (or chronologically) in the sequence of events is the conclusion. Note
that the conclusion will not necessarily appear in the last sentence of the argument.
Also, notice that you could have been distracted by a signal expression in front of claim Y:
As a result. These words tell you that the claim Y is a result of something else (in this case,
other premises). But you should not assume that claim Y is the conclusion; in fact, it leads
to another, even bigger claim (which is the conclusion).
To test the logical relationship of two claims, you can use other connectors besides therefore.
Other words or expressions that work the same way include so, thus, and as a result. Any of
these expressions can signal the conclusion.
Remember that you should only use the “Therefore” test if the question does not tell you
what the conclusion is or does not give you keywords from the argument that point to the
conclusion. If the question does provide such information, that information trumps the
“therefore” test.
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