Four Families:
Other question type elements will be discussed, most notably question variants
(such as Argument Part questions) and overlays (such as Principle questions).
Those will be discussed in later chapters.
Although each of these question types is distinct, they are related in terms of
the root function you are asked to perform. Questions that appear dissimilar,
such as Must Be True and Method of Reasoning, are actually quite similar
when considered in terms of how you work with the question. All question
types are variations of four main question “families,” and each family is
comprised of question types that are similar to each other.
Family #1, also known as the Must Be or Prove Family, consists of the following question types:
(1) Must Be True
(2) Main Point
(3) Point at Issue
(9) Method of Reasoning
(10) Flaw in the Reasoning
(11) Parallel Reasoning
Family #2, also known as the Help Family, consists of the following question types:
(4) Assumption
(5) Justify the Conclusion
(6) Strengthen/Support
(7) Resolve the Paradox
Family #3, also known as the Hurt Family, consists of the following question type:
(8) Weaken
Family #4, also known as the Disprove Family, consists of the following question type:
(13) Cannot Be True
The boxes on the preceding page represent the stimulus and answer choices
for any given Logical Reasoning question. The arrows represent the flow of
information; one part of the problem is simply accepted and the other part is
affected. There are two basic rules to follow when analyzing the diagrams:
1. The part (stimulus or answer choices) at the start of the arrow is
accepted as is, and no additional information (aside from general
domain assumptions) can be brought in.
2. The part (stimulus or answer choices) at the end of the arrow is what
is affected or determined (for example, are you asked to Weaken the
argument or determine which answer Must Be True?).
In very rough terms, the part at the start of the arrow is taken for granted and
the part at the end of the arrow is under suspicion. While this characterization
may sound a bit vague, this occurs because there are four different types of
relationships, and the details vary from type to type.
Part of the purpose of classifying questions into these four categories is to
understand the fundamental structure of Logical Reasoning problems. Many
students ask the following two questions upon seeing Logical Reasoning
questions for the first time:
1. Should I simply accept every statement in the stimulus as true?
2. Can the answer choices bring in information that is off-the-page,that
is, ideas and concepts not stated in the stimulus?
The answer to both questions depends on the question stem and corresponding
question family. Let us examine each question family and address these
questions in more detail.
The First Question Family
The First Question Family is based on the principle of using the information in
the stimulus to prove that one of the answer choices must be true.
In the First Family diagram, the arrow points downward from the stimulus to
the answer choices. Hence, the stimulus is at the start of the arrow, and the
answer choices are at the end of the arrow. According to the rules above,
whatever is stated in the stimulus is simply accepted as given, with no
additional information being added. And, because the arrow points to the
answer choices, the answer choices are “under suspicion,” and the information
in the stimulus is used to prove one of the answer choices correct.
Because the stimulus is accepted as stated (even if it contains an error of
reasoning), you cannot bring in additional information off the page—you can
only use what is stated in the stimulus. Thus, in a Must Be True question, only
what the author states in the stimulus can be used to prove one of the answer
choices. This reveals the way the arrow works: you start at the stimulus and
then use only that information to separate the answers. If an answer choice
references something that is not included or encompassed by the stimulus, it
will be incorrect. In a Method of Reasoning question, for example, the process
works the same. If one of the answers references some method of
argumentation that did not occur in the stimulus, then the answer is
automatically incorrect. The test makers do not hide this relationship. Most
question stems in this family (especially Must Be True) will contain a phrase
similar to, “The information above, if true, ...” (italics added). In this way the
test makers are able to indicate that you should accept the statements in the
stimulus as given and then use them to prove one of the answer choices.
The following rules apply to the First Question Family:
1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an
error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer
choices must be true.
2. Any information in an answer choice that does not appear either
directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus
will be incorrect.
These rules will be revisited in more detail once we begin analyzing individual
Logical Reasoning questions.
The Second Question Family
The Second Question Family is based on the principle of assisting or helping
the author’s argument or statement in some way, whether by revealing an
assumption of the argument, by resolving a paradox, or in some other fashion.
As opposed to the First Family, in this family the arrow points upward to the
stimulus. This reverses the flow of information: the answer choices are at the
start of the arrow, and the stimulus is at the end of the arrow. Functionally, this
means you must accept the answer choices as given, and the stimulus is under
suspicion. Accepting the answer choices as given means you cannot dispute
their factual basis, even if they include elements not mentioned in the stimulus
(we often call this “new” or “outside” information). The test makers make this
principle clear because most question stems in this family contain a phrase
similar to, “Which one of the following, if true,...” (italics added). By
including this phrase, the test makers indicate that they wish you to treat each
answer choice as factually correct. Your task is to examine each answer choice
and see which one best fits the exact criteria stated in the question stem
(justify, strengthen, etc.). In this question grouping, the stimulus is under suspicion. Often there are
errors of reasoning present, or leaps in logic, and you are asked to find an
answer choice that closes the hole. When you encounter a question of this
category, immediately consider the stimulus—were there any obvious holes or
gaps in the argument that could be filled by one of the answer choices? Often
you will find that the author has made an error of reasoning and you will be
asked to eliminate that error.
The following rules apply to the Second Question Family:
1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often
reasoning errors present, and depending on the question, you will
help shore up the argument in some way.
2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include
“new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice
best meets the question posed in the stem.
The Third Question Family
The Third Question Family consists of only one question type—Weaken.
Accordingly, you are asked to attack the author’s argument.
Compared to the Second Question Family, the only difference between the
diagrams is that the third family diagram has a bar across the arrow. This bar
signifies a negative: instead of strengthening or helping the argument, you
attack or hurt the argument. In this sense the third family is the polar opposite
of the second family; otherwise the two question families are identical.
For the Third Question Family, the following rules apply:
1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often
reasoning errors present, and you will further weaken the argument
in some way.
2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include
“new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice
best attacks the argument in the stimulus.
The Fourth Question Family
The Fourth Question Family also consists of only one question type—Cannot
Be True. As such, this question family is based on the principle that you must
use the information in the stimulus to prove that one of the answer choices
cannot occur. Compared to the First Question Family, the only difference in the diagram is
that the Fourth Family diagram has a bar across the arrow. Again, this bar
signifies a negative; instead of using the information in the stimulus to prove
one of the answer choices must be true, you instead prove that one of the
answer choices cannot occur or that it disagrees with the information in the
stimulus. In this sense the fourth family is the polar opposite of the first
family; otherwise the two question families are identical.
For the Fourth Question Family, the following rules apply:
1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an
error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer
choices cannot occur.
2. Any information in an answer choice that does not appear either
directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus
will be incorrect. The correct answer choice will directly disagree
with the stimulus or a consequence of the stimulus.
As you might expect, there are deeper relationships between the individual
question types and the question families. As we discuss the mechanics of
individual questions we will further explore these relationships.
Those of you reading closely may have noticed that one of the question types
was not listed among the Families. Evaluate the Argument questions are a
combination of the second and third question families, and we will explain
those questions in more detail in Chapter Sixteen.
Other question type elements will be discussed, most notably question variants
(such as Argument Part questions) and overlays (such as Principle questions).
Those will be discussed in later chapters.
Although each of these question types is distinct, they are related in terms of
the root function you are asked to perform. Questions that appear dissimilar,
such as Must Be True and Method of Reasoning, are actually quite similar
when considered in terms of how you work with the question. All question
types are variations of four main question “families,” and each family is
comprised of question types that are similar to each other.
(1) Must Be True
(2) Main Point
(3) Point at Issue
(9) Method of Reasoning
(10) Flaw in the Reasoning
(11) Parallel Reasoning
Family #2, also known as the Help Family, consists of the following question types:
(4) Assumption
(5) Justify the Conclusion
(6) Strengthen/Support
(7) Resolve the Paradox
Family #3, also known as the Hurt Family, consists of the following question type:
(8) Weaken
Family #4, also known as the Disprove Family, consists of the following question type:
(13) Cannot Be True
The boxes on the preceding page represent the stimulus and answer choices
for any given Logical Reasoning question. The arrows represent the flow of
information; one part of the problem is simply accepted and the other part is
affected. There are two basic rules to follow when analyzing the diagrams:
1. The part (stimulus or answer choices) at the start of the arrow is
accepted as is, and no additional information (aside from general
domain assumptions) can be brought in.
2. The part (stimulus or answer choices) at the end of the arrow is what
is affected or determined (for example, are you asked to Weaken the
argument or determine which answer Must Be True?).
In very rough terms, the part at the start of the arrow is taken for granted and
the part at the end of the arrow is under suspicion. While this characterization
may sound a bit vague, this occurs because there are four different types of
relationships, and the details vary from type to type.
Part of the purpose of classifying questions into these four categories is to
understand the fundamental structure of Logical Reasoning problems. Many
students ask the following two questions upon seeing Logical Reasoning
questions for the first time:
1. Should I simply accept every statement in the stimulus as true?
2. Can the answer choices bring in information that is off-the-page,that
is, ideas and concepts not stated in the stimulus?
The answer to both questions depends on the question stem and corresponding
question family. Let us examine each question family and address these
questions in more detail.
The First Question Family
The First Question Family is based on the principle of using the information in
the stimulus to prove that one of the answer choices must be true.
In the First Family diagram, the arrow points downward from the stimulus to
the answer choices. Hence, the stimulus is at the start of the arrow, and the
answer choices are at the end of the arrow. According to the rules above,
whatever is stated in the stimulus is simply accepted as given, with no
additional information being added. And, because the arrow points to the
answer choices, the answer choices are “under suspicion,” and the information
in the stimulus is used to prove one of the answer choices correct.
Because the stimulus is accepted as stated (even if it contains an error of
reasoning), you cannot bring in additional information off the page—you can
only use what is stated in the stimulus. Thus, in a Must Be True question, only
what the author states in the stimulus can be used to prove one of the answer
choices. This reveals the way the arrow works: you start at the stimulus and
then use only that information to separate the answers. If an answer choice
references something that is not included or encompassed by the stimulus, it
will be incorrect. In a Method of Reasoning question, for example, the process
works the same. If one of the answers references some method of
argumentation that did not occur in the stimulus, then the answer is
automatically incorrect. The test makers do not hide this relationship. Most
question stems in this family (especially Must Be True) will contain a phrase
similar to, “The information above, if true, ...” (italics added). In this way the
test makers are able to indicate that you should accept the statements in the
stimulus as given and then use them to prove one of the answer choices.
The following rules apply to the First Question Family:
1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an
error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer
choices must be true.
2. Any information in an answer choice that does not appear either
directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus
will be incorrect.
These rules will be revisited in more detail once we begin analyzing individual
Logical Reasoning questions.
The Second Question Family
The Second Question Family is based on the principle of assisting or helping
the author’s argument or statement in some way, whether by revealing an
assumption of the argument, by resolving a paradox, or in some other fashion.
As opposed to the First Family, in this family the arrow points upward to the
stimulus. This reverses the flow of information: the answer choices are at the
start of the arrow, and the stimulus is at the end of the arrow. Functionally, this
means you must accept the answer choices as given, and the stimulus is under
suspicion. Accepting the answer choices as given means you cannot dispute
their factual basis, even if they include elements not mentioned in the stimulus
(we often call this “new” or “outside” information). The test makers make this
principle clear because most question stems in this family contain a phrase
similar to, “Which one of the following, if true,...” (italics added). By
including this phrase, the test makers indicate that they wish you to treat each
answer choice as factually correct. Your task is to examine each answer choice
and see which one best fits the exact criteria stated in the question stem
(justify, strengthen, etc.). In this question grouping, the stimulus is under suspicion. Often there are
errors of reasoning present, or leaps in logic, and you are asked to find an
answer choice that closes the hole. When you encounter a question of this
category, immediately consider the stimulus—were there any obvious holes or
gaps in the argument that could be filled by one of the answer choices? Often
you will find that the author has made an error of reasoning and you will be
asked to eliminate that error.
The following rules apply to the Second Question Family:
1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often
reasoning errors present, and depending on the question, you will
help shore up the argument in some way.
2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include
“new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice
best meets the question posed in the stem.
The Third Question Family
The Third Question Family consists of only one question type—Weaken.
Accordingly, you are asked to attack the author’s argument.
Compared to the Second Question Family, the only difference between the
diagrams is that the third family diagram has a bar across the arrow. This bar
signifies a negative: instead of strengthening or helping the argument, you
attack or hurt the argument. In this sense the third family is the polar opposite
of the second family; otherwise the two question families are identical.
For the Third Question Family, the following rules apply:
1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often
reasoning errors present, and you will further weaken the argument
in some way.
2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include
“new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice
best attacks the argument in the stimulus.
The Fourth Question Family
The Fourth Question Family also consists of only one question type—Cannot
Be True. As such, this question family is based on the principle that you must
use the information in the stimulus to prove that one of the answer choices
cannot occur. Compared to the First Question Family, the only difference in the diagram is
that the Fourth Family diagram has a bar across the arrow. Again, this bar
signifies a negative; instead of using the information in the stimulus to prove
one of the answer choices must be true, you instead prove that one of the
answer choices cannot occur or that it disagrees with the information in the
stimulus. In this sense the fourth family is the polar opposite of the first
family; otherwise the two question families are identical.
For the Fourth Question Family, the following rules apply:
1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an
error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer
choices cannot occur.
2. Any information in an answer choice that does not appear either
directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus
will be incorrect. The correct answer choice will directly disagree
with the stimulus or a consequence of the stimulus.
As you might expect, there are deeper relationships between the individual
question types and the question families. As we discuss the mechanics of
individual questions we will further explore these relationships.
Those of you reading closely may have noticed that one of the question types
was not listed among the Families. Evaluate the Argument questions are a
combination of the second and third question families, and we will explain
those questions in more detail in Chapter Sixteen.
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